Importance of Positive Attachments from Zero to Three and Children's Wellbeing

Abstract

Attachment refers to the close emotional relationship formed between a caregiver and their infant in the first few years of life.  The relationships and interactions a child experiences during the first 3 years of life affect the child’s social and emotional wellbeing later in life.  This can be either a positive or negative outcome, depending on the type of attachment formed between the primary caregiver and the child.  This essay reviews the development of secure attachments versus insecure attachments and briefly discusses child developmental theories relating to attachment security and wellbeing, including Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory and John Bowlby’s attachment theory.  Research evidence indicates that children chronically exposed to negative environments are more likely to form insecure parent-child attachments that impair a child’s health, wellbeing and development. In contrast, the parents of securely attached children provide an improved quality of care that is more sensitive, consistent and responsive to a child’s needs, with improved social and emotional wellbeing and development of the child.  It will be argued that a child’s social and emotional wellbeing is enhanced through the development of positive attachments during the first 3 years of life.

Importance of Positive Attachments from Zero to Three

and Children’s Wellbeing

From the moment of birth, an infant interacts with many people in the social environment.  These interactions together with relationships formed during the early years, when attachments are formed have a profound effect on a child’s social and emotional wellbeing (Berk, 2012, Kochanska, 2001; Siegel, 2001).  McCain and Mustard (1999) proposed that the development of a child’s brain, especially during the first three years, effects the emotional growth and social competence during later life.  Furthermore, Siegel (2001) recognised that caregivers play an important role in a child’s healthy development since the child relies on the caregiver to provide emotional support and to manage their emotional reactions, thoughts and feelings.  During the first years of life, an infant’s brain is vulnerable to adverse experiences such as stress, and as a result the capacity for emotional self-regulation and future emotional competence is dependable upon positive social interactions and parent-child attachment security, including parental sensitivity (Schore, 2001; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

The attachment relationship between a child and their primary caregiver, usually the parents (Brown, Mangelsdorf & Neff, 2012, p. 422), can be classified into different attachment styles (Berk, 2012; Cameron, 2008; Kochanska, 2001).  Whether a child develops secure or insecure attachments depends on many factors such as infant and parent characteristics, stressors, cultural values, community resources and family circumstances such as marital support and financial stress (Berk, 2012; Cameron, 2008).  These factors contributing to the parent-child attachment security are explained within child developmental theories that are discussed within this essay.

Psychoanalytical and ethological theories of Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson and John Bowlby propose various factors fundamental to the development of the child and the affect it has on the child’s social and emotional wellbeing.  These include the quality of relationships, interactions with people including the social environment and the emotional attachments formed (Berk, 2012). 

It will be argued that a young child’s social and emotional wellbeing is enhanced by the development of positive attachments during the first three years of life.  According to Berk (2012), a positive parent-child attachment facilitates a greater chance for optimal growth and development than an insecurely attached child, who is more likely to have experienced a lack of sensitive, responsive caregiving, physical deprivation and in extreme cases, abuse or neglect.

The essay examines attachment security in relation to a child’s social and emotional wellbeing.  The essay identifies factors that affect attachment security, and then focuses on insecure attachments and the risk factors associated with impaired attachment security, and finally the identification of parenting interventions as a way to maintain and support a positive parent-child relationship.

Secure attachments

The development of a secure attachment is fostered by a consistent, sensitive and emotionally available parent who provides a child with the opportunity to form a close bond.  The parent is tuned in to their child’s needs, observing body language and behaviour and responds appropriately to the infant’s cues (Berk, 2012). Attunement supports the infant’s social and emotional development through regulating the parent-child interactions that contribute to brain maturation (Siegel, 2001).  According to Kochanska (2001), trust in the caregiver and continuity of care also contributes to secure attachments.  Parents’ of children with secure attachments are more likely to be emotionally available and sensitive to their child’s needs.  A child who is securely attached develops positive relationships with others (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).  Therefore attachment security can be described as the parent acting as the secure foundation, allowing the child to trust the parent and explore the environment at his or her own free will (Cameron, 2008). 

Emotional availability and emotional competence

Volling, McElwain, Notaro and Herrera (2002) carried out a short term longitudinal study, investigating the emotional status of both mother and father dyads, the individual disparity between parent and infant behaviour, infant emotional competence, attachment and emotional self-regulation.  The study was conducted in two parts.  The first part investigated aspects of attachment when the infants were 12 and 13 months old.  The second part of the study involved the children, then 16 months old, in an observational task investigating emotional availability. The results indicated that when the parents were more emotionally available (interacting in a sensitive and positive manner) during play sessions, the child tended to respond in a positive way.  The results of the teaching task found that as the task became more challenging for the child, only those securely attached were able to regulate their emotions as compared to children identified as insecurely attached who displayed more negative emotions and behaviour.  The research also advocated that in a family where both parent-child relationships are insecurely attached early in life, the child is left in a fragile state, unable to emotionally self-regulate.  Based on observations of the father-child relationship, the study supports research that a parent’s early emotional availability during infancy is related to the development of a child’s ability to self-regulate their emotions (Volling et al., 2002).  The results of this study are consistent with Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, taking into account that during the first year of basic trust verses mistrust, if the caregiver consistently interacts in a positive way with sensitivity, warmth and empathy, the infant places trust in the caregiver and therefore feels safe to explore the surrounding environment (Berk, 2012).  According to Berk (2012), Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory highlighted that for each stage of a child’s development, psychological conflicts occur that can be resolved either positively or negatively, depending on the quality of the relationship.  This impacts on whether a healthy or poor outcome is achieved. 

Parental sensitivity, involvement and continuity of caregiving

            Furthermore, a more recent study by Brown, Mangelsdorf and Neff (2012) investigated associations between father involvement, paternal sensitivity and father-child attachment at 13 months and 3 years using methods including a questionnaire, video encoding from observations and a father-child play task.  The results indicated that involvement, sensitivity and secure attachment at 3 years are significantly related, and that 13 month olds attachment to their father predicted the fathers’ sensitivity at 3 years.  Involvement and sensitivity together predicted father-child attachment at 3 years. Thus, parental sensitivity is one predictor of attachment security.  Moreover, Brown et al. noted that the continuity of the father-child attachment security remained stable from 13 months to 3 years of age, suggesting additional benefits for the continuity of social and emotional wellbeing of the child. The study suggested longitudinal associations such as parental sensitivity, relating to the quality of the father-child relationship, in sustaining a positive father-child relationship (Brown et al., 2012).  Brown, McBride, Shin and Bost (2007) (as cited in Brito, Barr, Rodriguez , & Shauffer, 2012) further support the finding of parental sensitivity and attachment security, stating that “The quality of the parent-child interaction is more important than the quantity of involvement” (p. 27), however if the father is involved and the interactions are of a positive nature, this too benefits emotional self-regulation and social competence of the child (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, Hofferth, & Lamb, 2000; Coley, 1998, as cited in Brito, Barr, Rodriguez & Shauffer, 2012), suggesting that attachment security is very complex, determined by multiple factors.  The research findings of Gunnar, Brodersen, Nachmias, Buss and Rigatuso (1996) in their study examining stress reactivity and attachment security in 18 month olds, found that those infants securely attached at 18 month had mothers who provided continuity of care that was responsive and sensitive during the previous year, as compared to those children determined as insecurely attached.  Thus the findings by Gunnar et al. (1996) provide further evidence to support the correlation between parental responsiveness, sensitivity and attachment security. 

A clear link can be seen between secure attachments during the early years and the development of social-emotional competence during childhood and later in life. According to Denham, Wyatt, Bassett, Echeverria and Knox (2009), the emotional availability of the parents influences the emotional competence of the child, thus supporting the findings by Volling et al. (2002).  Mechanisms such as the continuity of the parent-child attachment and emotional security in establishing social and emotional competence in later life, as derived from a secure parent-child relationship, are consistent with Bowlby’s attachment theory (Kochanska, 2001).  John Bowlby theorised that human attachments developed from an evolutionary perspective of the survival of the species. The deeply rooted symbiotic relationship between an infant and the primary caregiver results in the formation of an emotional bond during the first year of life (Berk, 2012, Schore, 2001; Stronach et al., 2011).  According to Cameron (2008), fundamental to Bowlby’s attachment theory are the contributions of responsive and sensitive caregiving to the development of secure attachment relationships.  Bowlby observed that underlying a child’s mental health and wellbeing is how capable a child is of managing stress (Schore, 2001).  Bergin and Bergin (2009) advocate a similar proposal to Schore (2001) in that “attachment is the foundation of socio-emotional well-being” (p. 141).  Consequently, the findings by Brown, Mangelsdorf and Neff (2012), who suggested that continuity of attachment security throughout life benefits a child’s social and emotional development, are supported by Bowlby’s premise.

Insecure attachments

In contrast, insecure attachments can be characterised as avoidant, ambivalent or disorganised, depending on the ease at which a child responds to their caregiver after a period of separation (Cameron, 2008; Kochanska, 2001).  Insecurely attached children may show signs of being unresponsive, distressed and anger, not easily comforted or hesitant to explore the environment (Berk, 2012; Kochanska, 2001; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).  A child who experiences prolonged exposure to parental depression, abuse and neglect or family stressors is at an increased risk of developing emotional regulation difficulties, anxiety, depression or behavioural problems that impair the development of positive attachments and emotional self-regulation (Berk, 2012; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, Shore, 1997). Infants of caregivers who consistently provide overstimulating, disengaged or overly interfering interactions are more likely to be classified with disorganised attachment (Berk, 2012; Shore, 1997).  Disorganised attachments are also associated with trauma during the early years (Schore, 2001), with trauma causing physiological changes that affect future social competence and emotional development (Witten, 2010).

Maternal mental health and sensitivity

Mothers suffering from depression are often inconsistent with their interactions toward their infant, often withdrawing or becoming hostile.  Depression is more likely to contribute to an insecure parent-child attachment as opposed to a secure attachment (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).  A study by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD, 1999) observed mothers and their infants over a 36 month period, investigating the link between maternal depression, the mother-child relationship and how these factors influence a child’s behaviour and outcome at three years.  The mother and child were assessed four times during the 36 month period.  The results suggested that maternal depression is a risk factor for a child’s social and cognitive development. Furthermore depressive symptoms such as irritability and emotional withdrawal are more likely to foster decreased sensitivity.  Women who experienced chronic depression were the least sensitive whereas women not depressed displayed increased sensitivity.  An important finding of this study found that those mothers who were the least sensitive showed a decline in the rate of sensitivity from the 15 month assessment to the 24 month assessment.  According to researchers from the NICHD (1999), the decline in sensitivity may correspond with the child’s increase in autonomy during toddlerhood, thus challenging the mother to manage her child’s behaviour. This suggestion is consistent with Erikson’s psychosocial theory, who theorised from the age of one to three, a child’s conflict revolves around autonomy verses shame and doubt.  The conflict can be positively balanced and resolved if the caregiver provides guidance, responsive and sensitive caregiving, with the outcome being to foster autonomy.  In contrast, caregivers who shame and doubt, or are controlling, force the child to doubt his or her ability and independence. 

Other factors affecting attachment

The study by NICHD (1999) also implied that depression is associated with multiple risk factors such as financial stress, lack of support or marital conflict, and that research focussing on maternal sensitivity and the quality of the mother-child relationship together with other risk factors would be important to further increase our understanding of the correlation.  This implication is supported by Shonkoff & Phillips (2000) who suggest that “parental sensitivity is associated with financial stress, marital support and life circumstances” (p. 262).  This implication can be further understood using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, suggesting that children develop within various levels of the community, affected by interactions and relationships not just within the child’s immediate surroundings but in the wider community and social environment (Berk, 2012, pp. 25-26).  Thus, if a mother has little outside support within the community or within her family, or is in need of financial assistance, this has the potential to affect her child’s behaviour and wellbeing. 

In addition, Atkinson et al. (2000) conducted a meta-analysis based on 35 studies, reviewing the links between attachment security and social marital support, stress and maternal depression.  Based on their analyses, they concluded that attachment security is significantly related to marital support, stress and depression.  However, Atkinson et al. mention that further research into these constructs, including in what context they are measured as well as using different methods to evaluate the outcome is warranted.

Parenting interventions

            Given the importance of how positive attachments can enhance the social and emotional wellbeing of young children, parenting interventions are seen as an important step in maintaining a positive parent-child relationship (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).  Parenting programs such as the “Baby Elmo Program” (Brito, Barr, Rodriguez , & Shauffer, 2012, p. 27) designed for incarcerated parents, aims to strengthen the quality of the interactions, the quality of the parent-child relationship and encourage positive attachments all of which are useful in providing support for families.  Positive outcomes include increased parental sensitivity and improved health and wellbeing of the parent and child.  This is particularly important for parents who have limited or inconsistent contact with their child (Brito, Barr, Rodriguez , & Shauffer, 2012; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).  The core premise for the framework of an intervention program is Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory.  When applied to a particular circumstance, it is important to include other significant people that would directly or indirectly affect the parent-child relationship, and not just the immediate parent-child dyad (Brito, Barr, Rodriguez , & Shauffer, 2012).  This reflects the complexity of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory but more importantly, the inclusion of other authority figures in the wider community who also play a significant role in providing support for the families.

            In conclusion, the enhancement of a child’s social and emotional wellbeing is fostered by positive attachments during the first three years of a child’s life.  Given that children who are insecurely attached to their caregiver show an increase in negative emotion and behavioural difficulties as compared to securely attached children, the importance of the caregiver’s role in maintaining a positive relationship cannot be underestimated.  Attachment security is vulnerable to multiple risk factors that negatively affect the parent-child attachment; therefore parenting intervention programs play a crucial role in strengthening the quality of the caregiver-child relationship and the interactions within.  In contrast, parents who are tuned-in to their child’s emotions and behaviours and provide consistent and sensitive caregiving, tend to develop a secure attachment with their child.  Thus, for a child to develop a healthy social and emotional wellbeing, positive attachments during the first three years of life remain fundamental to this outcome.

References

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